We have good reason to believe that Jesus was killed on a cross (Tenney1964-ll,Habermas2021-ih , Holoubek1995-sr) from external sources outside of the Bible. For the purpose of this submission, let's disregard all extrabiblical data and assume that what the Gospels record about this night is accurate since they are the closest documents to what really happened.

First, Jesus was in great distress before the fateful night began. As he prayed in the Garden of Gethsemane, it's recorded that he sweated blood due to the high level of stress he experienced (Luke 22:44). For many years, this seemed fantastical, but it is now known that this is a very rare phenomenon called Hematidrosis (Scott1918-kt). Hematidrosis is the result of hemorrhages into the sweat glands under the skin due to great emotional stress . While His blood loss was very minimal from this, on a cold night it could have produced chills.

We Read in the Gospels that Jesus was beaten before He was sent to the cross at the Jewish trials. The guards blindfolded Jesus, spat on him, and struck him in the face with their fists. During the Roman trials, He was stuck repeatably on the head with a club and mocked. Next, He was sent to be scourged, which is described in the following way:

From there, Jesus was led to carry His cross from the scourging site to Golgotha where He was to be crucified. Because of the horrific beatings, Jesus was not able to carry the cross and collapsed after a short distance. He was so weakened at this state that a passerby was made to carry the cross for Him (Matthew 27:32, Luke 23:26). This is backed by further historical evidence that some who underwent this whipping did not survive to even get crucified (Philo_of_Alexandria1929-dc, Keener2012-jw, Witherington2003-yf, Carson1991-lc, Josephus1927-dh, Eusebius_of_Caesarea_Bishop_of_Caesarea2005-ro, Gibson2009-xf).

Once at the hill, Jesus was then nailed to the cross. He was most likely pierced on His wrists (Davis1997-ih) and feet (Haas1970-vo). The Gospels then record that He was on the Cross for over six hours (Gibson2009-xf) before taking his final breath. Before His body was taken down from the cross, the Roman soldier stabbed a spear in His side to make His death certain (Chilton2006-gl). The blood and water that is recorded to have poured out from His side are consistent with modern medical knowledge about pericardial effusion and pleural effusion, the fluid buildup around the lungs and heart (Stroud1871-fg, Barbet2018-ti, Maslen2006-bp, Ball1989-gg, Holding2010-lw).

To summarize this submission:

• Jesus was in an extreme state of stress and most likely did not sleep the night before the Crucifixion.
• He was abandoned and left by His closest friends.
• He was beaten in the face repeatedly by guards in the Jewish trials.
• Romans taunted and beat Him with a club.
• He was tied to a post and underwent scourging, resulting in extreme blood loss.
• Jesus was forced to walk 2.5 miles carrying a cross, one that He could not bear, in front of all of Jerusalem.
• His Crucifixion lasted for over 6 hours.
• He was pierced with a spear before being taken down from the cross (Barb1971-hd)

William Edwards, Wesley Gabel, and Floyd Hosmer put it best.

Even if the Gospels were shown the be unreliable, the extra-biblical historical accounts confirm that Jesus died on the cross (Maier1975-yn, Johnson1996-ly, Crossan1994-ct, Keener2012-jw, Brown1998-kk, Ludemann2010-te), the idea that he would be able to walk away or survive is foolish (Bryan2011-lm, Seneca1902-dq).

Read more at (Clark1890-hb, Brenner2005-dh, Le_Bec1941-sc,Zugibe2005-bt)

Jesus was in an extreme state of stress, beaten and scourged before being crucified. He was likely pierced on His wrists and feet, and on the cross for over 6 hours before being stabbed in the side with a spear. Both the Gospels and extra-biblical sources confirm Jesus' death on the cross.

During the first century, the practice of sealing tombs in Jerusalem involved the use of both round (disk-shaped) and square (cube-shaped) stones. Israeli archaeologist Amos Kloner's extensive research, which included the examination of over 900 cave tombs, revealed that the vast majority of these stones were square. This significant finding suggests that the stone used to block the entrance to Jesus' tomb was likely of a similar cube shape. The rarity of round stones, according to Kloner's study, points to a common burial practice distinct from the narrative commonly associated with the New Testament accounts of Jesus' tomb (Kloner2006-je).

The terminology used in the New Testament to describe the movement of the stone is not so straight forward as it is in English. The Greek term word "proskulisas" (
Mark 15:46, Luke 24:2) translated as "rolled" could alternatively be interpreted as "moved" or "dislodged," a point highlighted by scholors (Kloner2015-ow, Von_Wahlde2015-yz) in their respective research. Conversely, John's Gospel describes the stone as "taken away" (Greek "airo"), a more ambiguous term that accommodates different types of stones. This linguistic ambiguity allows for the possibility that the stone could have been either round or square, as the actual method of moving the stone could vary depending on its shape. An compelling detail comes from Matthew 28:2, where it describes an angel sitting on the removed stone, a scenario that works with both types of stones. Yet, archaeological discoveries show that disk-shaped stones rolled into a groove or slot to secure the tomb, preventing tipping or unauthorized access. This design would make it impossible for anyone to roll the stone back and then sit upon it, as described in Matthew.

Furthermore, the physical characteristics and logistics surrounding these tombstones are noteworthy. Historical records and archaeological findings, such as those by Flavius Josephus, indicate that these stones could weigh up to two tons (Josephus2018-gw),John 19:38-40). This significant weight shows the practical impossibilities of a single individual, or even a small group, moving such a stone without considerable effort. Scholars like Dale C. Allison Jr., Raymond E. Brown, and Shimon Gibson support this assertion, arguing that the stone's removal would have been a substantial undertaking (Allison2005-xc, Brown1998-by, Gibson2009-xf).

In light of these considerations, it remains a possibility that Jesus was buried behind a square-shaped stone, typically reserved for the most affluent, in the unused tomb of Joseph of Arimathea. This scenario, while less common, aligns with the biblical description found in Matthew 28, where an angel is depicted as sitting on the stone post-movement. The details in the Gospels could feasibly apply to both types of stones and remain open to interpretation based on archaeological, textual, and historical evidence. The interplay between these elements highlights the ongoing scholarly debate and the complexities involved in understanding the historical context of Jesus' burial and resurrection.

The Bible records that after Jesus was buried, the Pharisees urged Pilate to place a guard at the tomb of Jesus because of His teachings proclaiming He would rise from the grave. Due to fear that His disciples would steal the body, Pilate approved. It is not 100% certain if it was the Jewish temple guard or the Roman guard, but the story in the Gospels implies Roman guards. Most scholars that do accept the guards at the tomb favor the Roman guards or even both parties (Orr1908-rn, Craig1984-pb, Cassels2016-md, Gospel of Nicodemus, The Report of Pilate to the Emperor Claudius, E. LeCamus, Wright2003-bg).

The biblical account notes that after Jesus' burial, the Pharisees, concerned about His prophecy of resurrection, requested Pilate to secure Jesus' tomb. This led to the deployment of guards, although it remains unclear whether they were Roman soldiers, Jewish temple guards, or a combination of both.

The Gospels imply Roman involvement at the tomb, and many scholars lean towards this view due to the high stakes associated with guarding the tomb and the severe penalties for Roman soldiers abandoning their posts, which included death. Conversely, the presence of Jewish temple guards is considered plausible by some scholars based on the narrative details and interactions within the biblical texts, such as the guards' report to the Pharisees. The debate between whether Roman or Jewish guards were stationed is part of the broader discussion regarding the historical events surrounding Jesus' resurrection.